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http://fcs.tamu.edu/families/parenting/fathering/fathering_pdf/active_fathers.pdf

 

20 Reasons Why Your Child Needs

You to Be an Active Father

Fathers play a critical role in the development of their children. The latest research indicates that fathers

who are actively involved in raising their children can make a positive and lasting difference in their

lives. In contrast, this same research reveals a number of potentially negative outcomes for children

whose fathers are not involved. Listed below are 20 reasons why your child needs you to be an active

father. Being an active father:

1. Lets your child know that you love her. Love involves more than saying the words, “I love you.”

Fathers who love their children demonstrate their love by spending quality and quantity time together.

Children who feel loved are more likely to develop a strong emotional bond with their father and a

healthy self-esteem.

2. Provides your child with greater financial resources. Research clearly indicates that families with

an active father are “better off” financially. This means that children with active fathers will be more

likely to have access to resources that facilitate healthy development (e.g., food, clothing, shelter,

quality medical care).

3. Provides your child with a positive male role model. Children, regardless of gender, need positive

male and female role models. Children tend to model behavior (positive and negative) that they

witness on a consistent basis. Active fathers can promote positive behaviors by setting a proper

example for their children.

4. Provides your child with emotional support. In addition to financial support, children also need

emotional support from their parents. Active fathers listen and support their children when they

experience joy, sadness, anger, fear, and frustration. Fathers who support their children emotionally

tend to raise children who are more in-tune with the needs of others.

5. Enhances your childʼs self-esteem. Self-esteem refers to how a person feels about himself. Children

with high self-esteem tend to be happier and more confident than children with low self-esteem.

Active fathers promote their childrenʼs self-esteem by being fully involved in their lives and letting

them know that they are highly valued.

6. Enhances your childʼs intellectual development. Children who are raised with actively involved

fathers tend to score higher on measures of verbal and mathematical ability, and also demonstrate

greater problem-solving and social skills.

7. Provides your child with guidance and discipline. From infancy, children need proper guidance and

discipline. Active fathers play an important role in teaching their children proper behavior by setting

and enforcing healthy limits.

8. Gives your child someone to play with. One of the primary ways that fathers bond with their

children is through play. According to researchers, there are qualitative differences in the ways fathers

and mothers play with their children. Fathers tend to use a more physical style of play (e.g., wrestling)

that offers a number of benefits to children, including enhanced cognitive ability.

9. Provides your child with someone to talk to when she has questions. Young children are full of

questions. This natural curiosity helps them learn about their environment. Active fathers can be a

valuable source of information for children who are seeking answers to lifeʼs important questions. 10.Increases your childʼs chances for academic success. Children whose fathers are actively involved

in their lives are more likely to achieve academic success than children whose fathers are not actively

involved. These academic benefits appear to extend into adulthood.

11.Provides your child with an alternative perspective on life. Research indicates that men and women

often differ in their parenting styles; however, one style is not necessarily better than the other.

Instead, it can be healthy for children to be exposed to different perspectives on life, such as a fatherʼs.

12.Lowers your childʼs chances for early sexual activity. Children with actively involved fathers are

less likely to engage in early sexual activity, thus reducing their chances for teen pregnancy and

sexually transmitted diseases.

13.Lowers your childʼs chances for school failure. Children with actively involved fathers are less

likely to drop out of school than children with uninvolved fathers.

14.Lowers your childʼs chances for youth suicide. Children with actively involved fathers are less

likely to commit suicide than children with uninvolved fathers.

15.Lowers your childʼs chances for juvenile delinquency. The benefits of having an active father

throughout a childʼs early years extend into the teen years as well. Children with active fathers are less

likely to commit juvenile crimes than children with inactive fathers.

16.Lowers your childʼs chances for adult criminality. The chances that a child will commit crimes as

an adult also diminish when he grows up with an actively involved father.

17.Provides your child with a sense of physical and emotional security. One of the major benefits that

fathers can provide to their children by being actively involved is a sense of security (physical and

emotional). By being actively involved in a childʼs life, a father promotes a trusting relationship. The

child does not have to worry about being abandoned.

18.Facilitates your childʼs moral development. Children need a moral compass to guide them when

they face difficult moral choices. Fathers, like mothers, help children to develop a sense of right and

wrong that serves as a foundation for establishing moral character.

19.Promotes a healthy gender identity in your child. Boys and girls benefit from having healthy role

models from both sexes. Research points to the fact that mothers and fathers socialize their children in

different ways. Fathers can help their children, especially boys, to develop a healthy sense of what it

means to be a male.

20.Helps your child learn important life skills. Most of the essential life skills that children need to

survive are learned within the home. Fathers have a unique opportunity to teach their children valuable

skills that will enable them to grow up to be healthy and productive adults.

Fathers, your children need you! Make a commitment to be an active father. Your children will greatly

benefit from your involvement in their lives.

Prepared by Stephen D. Green, Ph.D., Child Development Specialist, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, October 2000.

Source: Wade F. Horn, David Blankenhorn, and Mitchell B. Pearlstein (Eds.), The Fatherhood Movement: A Call to Action. New

York: Lexington Books.

Educational programs of the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex, disability, religion, age, or national origin.

The Texas A&M University System • College Station, Texas

 

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http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/02/12/active-father-figure-helps-kids

 

A new research study highlights the benefit of an active father figure for reducing behavioral problems in boys and psychological problems in young women.

 

Swedish researchers also found that regular positive contact reduces criminal behavior among children in low-income families and enhances cognitive skills like intelligence, reasoning and language development.

 

Children who lived with both a mother and father figure also had less behavioral problems than those who just lived with their mother.

 

The review is published in the February issue of Acta Paediatrica.

 

Researchers urge healthcare professionals to increase fathersʼ involvement in their childrenʼs healthcare and call for policy makers to ensure that fathers have the chance to play an active role in their upbringing.

 

The review looked at 24 papers published between 1987 and 2007, covering 22,300 individual sets of data from 16 studies. 18 of the 24 papers also covered the social economic status of the families studied.

 

The smallest study focused on 17 infants and the largest covered 8,441 individuals ranging from premature babies to 33 year-olds. They included major ongoing research from the USA and UK, together with smaller studies from Sweden and Israel.

 

“Our detailed 20-year review shows that overall, children reap positive benefits if they have active and regular engagement with a father figure” says Dr Anna Sarkadi from the Department of Womenʼs and Childrenʼs Health at Uppsala University, Sweden.

 

“For example, we found various studies that showed that children who had positively involved father figures were less likely to smoke and get into trouble with the police, achieved better levels of education and developed good friendships with children of both sexes.

 

“Long-term benefits included women who had better relationships with partners and a greater sense of mental and physical well-being at the age of 33 if they had a good relationship with their father at 16.”

 

However the authors point out that it is not possible to conclude what type of engagement the father figure needs to provide to produce positive effects.

 

“The studies show that it can range from talking and sharing activities to playing an active role in the childʼs day-to-day care.”

 

The researchers believe that more research is needed to determine whether the outcomes are different depending on whether the child lives with their biological father or with another father figure.

 

“However, our review backs up the intuitive assumption that engaged biological fathers or father figures are good for children, especially when the children are socially or economically disadvantaged” says Dr Sarkadi.

 

“Children who lived with both a mother and father figure had less behavioural problems than those who lived with just their mother. However, it is not possible to tell whether this is because the father figure is more involved or whether the mother is able to be a better parent if she has more support at home.”

 

The researchers feel that it is important that professionals who work with young children and their families explore how actively fathers are involved with their children from an early age.

 

“Involving them in healthcare visits and explicitly seeking their opinions when making decisions could be a good way to promote high levels of engagement” says Dr Sarkadi. “Stressing that fathers have an important role in promoting their childʼs social and emotional development is another good strategy.”

 

Governments and employers also have an important role to play in ensuring that men can spend quality time with their offspring, stress the authors.

 

“Public policy has the potential to facilitate or create barriers to fathers spending time with their children during the crucial years of early development” says Dr Sarkadi.

 

“Unfortunately current institutional policies in most countries do not support the increased involvement of fathers in child rearing. Paid parental leave for fathers and employers sympathetic to fathers staying at home with sick children is still a dream in most countries.

 

“We hope that this review will add to the body of evidence that shows that enlightened father-friendly policies can make a major contribution to society in the long run, by producing well-adjusted children and reducing major problems like crime and antisocial behavior.”

 

Source: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

 

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http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080212095450.htm

 

Children Who Have An Active Father Figure Have Fewer Psychological And Behavioral Problems

Feb. 15, 2008 — Active father figures have a key role to play in reducing behaviour problems in boys and psychological problems in young women, according to a review published in the February issue of Acta Paediatrica.

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Swedish researchers also found that regular positive contact reduces criminal behaviour among children in low-income families and enhances cognitive skills like intelligence, reasoning and language development.

Children who lived with both a mother and father figure also had less behavioural problems than those who just lived with their mother.

The researchers are urging healthcare professionals to increase fathers' involvement in their children's healthcare and calling on policy makers to ensure that fathers have the chance to play an active role in their upbringing.

The review looked at 24 papers published between 1987 and 2007, covering 22,300 individual sets of data from 16 studies. 18 of the 24 papers also covered the social economic status of the families studied.

The smallest study focused on 17 infants and the largest covered 8,441 individuals ranging from premature babies to 33 year-olds. They included major ongoing research from the USA and UK, together with smaller studies from Sweden and Israel.

"Our detailed 20-year review shows that overall, children reap positive benefits if they have active and regular engagement with a father figure" says Dr Anna Sarkadi from the Department of Women's and Children's Health at Uppsala University, Sweden.

"For example, we found various studies that showed that children who had positively involved father figures were less likely to smoke and get into trouble with the police, achieved better levels of education and developed good friendships with children of both sexes.

"Long-term benefits included women who had better relationships with partners and a greater sense of mental and physical well-being at the age of 33 if they had a good relationship with their father at 16."

However the authors point out that it is not possible to conclude what type of engagement the father figure needs to provide to produce positive effects.

"The studies show that it can range from talking and sharing activities to playing an active role in the child's day-to-day care."

The researchers believe that more research is needed to determine whether the outcomes are different depending on whether the child lives with their biological father or with another father figure.

"However, our review backs up the intuitive assumption that engaged biological fathers or father figures are good for children, especially when the children are socially or economically disadvantaged" says Dr Sarkadi.

"Children who lived with both a mother and father figure had less behavioural problems than those who lived with just their mother. However, it is not possible to tell whether this is because the father figure is more involved or whether the mother is able to be a better parent if she has more support at home."

The researchers feel that it is important that professionals who work with young children and their families explore how actively fathers are involved with their children from an early age.

"Involving them in healthcare visits and explicitly seeking their opinions when making decisions could be a good way to promote high levels of engagement" says Dr Sarkadi. "Stressing that fathers have an important role in promoting their child's social and emotional development is another good strategy."

Governments and employers also have an important role to play in ensuring that men can spend quality time with their offspring, stress the authors.

"Public policy has the potential to facilitate or create barriers to fathers spending time with their children during the crucial years of early development" says Dr Sarkadi.

"Unfortunately current institutional policies in most countries do not support the increased involvement of fathers in child rearing. Paid parental leave for fathers and employers sympathetic to fathers staying at home with sick children is still a dream in most countries.

"We hope that this review will add to the body of evidence that shows that enlightened father-friendly policies can make a major contribution to society in the long run, by producing well-adjusted children and reducing major problems like crime and antisocial behaviour."

Journal reference: Fathers' involvement and children's developmental outcomes: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. Sarkadi et al. Acta Paediatrica. 97.2, pp 153-158. (February 2008).

 

 

Μοιραστείτε το στους μελλοντικούς μπαμπάδες. είναι κρίμα που ακόμα κάποιοι (και στην οικογένεια, συγγενείς) πιστεύουν οτι το παιδί τα πρώτα χρόνια/πρώτο καιρό χρειάζεται μόνο την μητέρα.

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http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-132.html

 

Executive Summary

It is often assumed that there has been a dramatic change in fathers' involvement with their children in the last twenty or thirty years. Whilst there has been some increase in time men spend with their children, their participation in housework and child-related chores has not changed dramatically. The idea that fathers are important, on the other hand, has been constantly reiterated over many centuries.

There is a much longer history of paternity leave than has been realised - throughout the twentieth century fathers took time off work to support their wives around the time of birth, although official paternity leave was not introduced until 2003.

The emphasis on equality between mothers and fathers in child custody is also not new - this premise was crucial in debates surrounding the 1925 Guardianship Act.

The cultural and historical assumptions surrounding fatherhood have a tangible impact on the attitudes towards and experiences of homosexual fathers, adoptive fathers and single fathers, with clear implications for policies relating to child custody and paternity leave.

The inaccurate assumption that there was a lack of paternal involvement in the past colours our interpretation of fatherhood today: if previous generations of fathers were largely absent, even a small amount of participation by modern fathers is seen as 'good progress'.

The celebration of close father-child relationships is certainly positive, but we must reject suggestions that this has only developed since the 1970s or even 1990s.

Policies today should be designed to ensure all parents, regardless of sex or form of family, can exercise choice to be active parents

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Introduction: assumptions about history

Many policy-makers, journalists and social commentators suggest that in previous decades, fathers were distant family members and did not have close relationships with their children. In June 2011 in The Independent, journalist Terence Blacker stated that 'The generation of men who fought in the Second World War and their immediate successors had many great virtues... But they were not good at fatherhood'. In the 2011 controversy surrounding the birth of actor Hugh Grant's baby, Hugo Schwyzer, writer and historian, suggested in The Guardian that Grant's obvious joy on becoming a father was a modern phenomenon, marking 'Grant once again not only as essentially decent, but as a most representative modern man'.

 

It is often assumed that in the past fathers' roles were clearly defined, whereas their duties and place in the family are much more confused and complex today. Many perceived problems in today's society are attributed to a lack of strong male figures in the lives of young people. Discussing the riots of August 2011, for example, Work and Pensions Secretary Iain Duncan Smith suggested that 'constructive fatherhood' had too often disappeared. Acting as a role model has long been seen as a key duty for fathers, yet there has always been a diversity of experience. Fears about the absence of fathers causing rebellion among young people have a long history and were particularly prominent during and after the two world wars. Assumptions about what fathers did in the past are not borne out in historical evidence.

 

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Fatherhood in the twentieth century

Historians, such as John Tosh and Joanne Bailey, have uncovered much evidence of very involved fathers, who spent a lot of time with their children in the home and had close emotional relationships with sons and daughters throughout past centuries. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, 'tenderness' was understood by social commentators and individual parents as a crucial quality for fathers. In the nineteenth century, the stereotype of the distant and tyrannical Victorian patriarch conceals substantial evidence of fathers who cared greatly for their children and played with them, educated them, and even nursed them. In the early part of the twentieth century, the stern Victorian stereotype was itself held up in contrast to the supposed contemporary reality of less distant men. By the 1930s and 1940s, it was frequently asserted that fathers were forming genuine friendships with their children and taking an active role at the heart of family life. In the post-Second World War era, it was said that many men were determined to cultivate much closer relationships with their children than they had experienced with their own fathers.

 

This was reinforced by important social trends. The reduction in average family size meant that many parents could devote more time to each of their children. The emphasis on the small, nuclear family as a self-sufficient entity gave fathers a place at the heart of the family. A decrease in working hours and increased holiday time meant that men had more time available to spend with their families. After the Second World War, increased living standards for many working-class families meant that homes became more pleasant places to spend leisure time, due to better housing, private gardens and affordable commodities, from refrigerators to televisions.

 

The emphasis on the nuclear family was reinforced after 1945 by the expansion of state welfare and psychological thinking about the family. Policy-makers often assumed that a 'family' meant a man working full time, a woman primarily occupied in the home or working part-time, if at all, with two or three children of nursery or school age. This was reflected in legislation, such as the introduction in 1945 of family allowances, which were paid directly to mothers at the insistence of feminist campaigners, who called for the greater recognition of motherhood as a vocation and the importance to the economy of domestic work. These sentiments were reflected in William Beveridge's proposals for the post-war welfare state. Influential psychologists such as John Bowlby suggested that children needed almost constant attention from a mother-figure, which further encouraged housewifery and motherhood as women's main roles and discouraged female employment. Ideas about the 'normal family' could also be seen in the design of new housing, with a proliferation of modestly-sized semi-detached houses with three bedrooms and a private garden. The conception of the small, nuclear family as 'normal' thus pervaded society, though many families did not fit this model.

 

This focus on the nuclear family, the high marriage rate and the early average age of marriage, was particular to this period. This was challenged in the 1960s and 1970s by the rise of second-wave feminism, a revolution in attitudes towards sexuality and the increase in the divorce rate following changes in the law from 1969. An influx of migrants, particularly from the Caribbean, India and Pakistan, also produced a greater diversity of family forms. From 1973, men and women were given equal rights regarding the guardianship of children in the event of separation. Then, in the 1970s, fathers' groups were rapidly established to promote fathers' rights, perceiving a need to reassert the significance of fathers now that mothers' rights were more firmly entrenched in law.

 

Over the last century, there has been some increase in men's participation in childcare, but this has not been as rapid and dramatic as is often assumed. John and Elizabeth Newson, social researchers working in Nottingham in 1963, found that 78 per cent of men fed their one-year-old infants 'often' or 'sometimes', 80 per cent took part in the bedtime ritual, and 99 per cent played with their children. However, the majority of fathers did not bathe their baby or attend to him or her in the night, and 43 per cent never changed a nappy. In 1982, this research was repeated. Charlie Lewis found that around one third of men took little or no responsibility for feeding. Men's involvement in putting the child to bed was slightly lower than in Newson and Newson's study: 74 per cent had some or a lot of involvement, and 26 per cent, 'little or none'. Again, the majority of men had little or no involvement in bathing their child, and 40 per cent rarely changed a nappy, though many more (87 per cent) attended to their baby when he or she woke in the night.

 

Contemporary research, such as a recent study entitled ''Family Man': British Fathers' Journey to the Centre of the Kitchen' conducted by the Fatherhood Institute in 2011, suggests that men now spend more time interacting with their children. It is argued that this is a wholly positive development for the happiness and wellbeing of those children as they grow older. By re-examining the historical record, however, it is evident that fathers have been much more involved in family life in the past than is generally recognised. To support families' choices about the division of domestic labour, childcare duties and paid work, it is necessary to move on from the notion that fathers are inferior as parents in comparison to mothers, and that they have only recently become fully involved in their children's lives. This is particularly so given the rise in divorces and separations. For single fathers, these assumptions can hamper men's chances to gain custody of their children and consequently their ability to care for and develop relationships with them as they grow older. Changes in both policy and related social attitudes will be necessary if further developments in fathers' involvement are to be supported.

 

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Paternity and Parental Leave

Paternity leave was introduced in April 2003 by the Labour government. Fathers were given two weeks' leave to be taken within 56 days of the baby's birth, in one single block, paid initially at £100 per week or 90 per cent of earnings, whichever was lower. This changed in April 2011, when a scheme of Additional Paternity Leave was introduced. This is more flexible, and enables fathers to take the equivalent of any maternity leave that is not used by the mother, after the first 26 weeks, if she has returned to work.

 

Again, the history of paternity leave is more complex than has been assumed. Men in the past frequently took time off work to be with their wives or partners and babies around the time of birth. This could take the form of unpaid leave, annual holiday, sick or compassionate leave - indeed doctors were often willing to sign sick notes to facilitate this. In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers found that it was not uncommon for factory workers to take a week off work when a baby was born. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, a small number of employers, such as the Greater London Council and British Rail, had limited paternity leave schemes as an additional employer benefit. In the 1980s, one study found that only 18 per cent of men did not take any time off work, and 30 per cent took eight or more days' leave. Another research project published by the Equalities Commission in 1983 suggested that only around five per cent of employed fathers took no time off, and over 70 per cent took more than one week. Over 90 per cent of fathers supported the idea of an official scheme of paternity leave. According to research by the Fatherhood Institute, over 90 per cent of men currently take some leave after the birth of their child, with around 60 per cent taking official paternity leave. Many men prefer to take annual leave because it is paid at a higher rate.

 

The implications of the new flexible rules regarding parental leave remain to be seen. It is clear that, like active fatherhood, informal paternity leave has a much longer history than tends to be assumed. Throughout the twentieth century, fathers have found a variety of ways to help their wives during the important period around and just after a baby's birth. As the number of families who employed domestic servants decreased, and some working-class families relocated to areas away from relatives, the support and help of a husband has become increasingly necessary. It is clear that many fathers want to, and do, help a great deal during this period, and have managed to do so through both official and unofficial channels. Supporting men in this way through flexible parental leave schemes reinforces a long trend of men's choice at this key time.

 

A final issue to consider is the rapid and dramatic transformation in men's attendance at childbirth over the last fifty years. Until the 1950s, very few men were present when their child was born, as both men and women thought this to be an invasion on the woman's privacy and 'unmanly' on the part of the father. One exception was upper-class fathers - there is evidence that in aristocratic families, fathers did sometime attend the birth. Indeed, Prince Albert was present when Queen Victoria gave birth to several of their children.

 

By 1960, around one in ten of all men attended their child's birth and this increased through the latter half of the twentieth century as more hospitals allowed fathers into delivery rooms. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, around 80 to 90 per cent of men were present during at least part of the labour. Since the 1990s, over 90 per cent are present, though no exact statistics are available throughout this period, as hospitals do not generally record them. This major shift reflects changes both in relationships between couples and in fatherhood. The opportunity to cut the umbilical cord gives fathers a symbolic role in the process of birth, and fathers are encouraged to provide the first skin-to-skin contact with the baby if the mother cannot, such as during instrumental and Caesarean deliveries. The presence and participation of men in this event is connected to their bonding with the baby afterwards. In a 1992 study, for example, 92 per cent of men stated that they felt closer to their child because of their presence at the birth. If there is a desire to encourage strong involvement of fathers with their babies, hospitals and midwives should be supporting the active participation of fathers in the labour process, when both partners want this. Research by the National Childbirth Trust in 2000 suggests that this is not always happening; around a quarter of men felt they were not always informed or included, and many more feel they do not know how to best support their partner.

 

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Different family types and child custody

Key developments in the recent history of fatherhood include the increase in the numbers of single-parent families, the rise in adoption and fostering by homosexual individuals and couples, and the progress of reproductive technologies around IVF, opening the possibility for parenting for different groups of people. These changes reinforce the importance of recognising that 'the family' can refer to a range of different groupings, not just the stereotypical nuclear family.

 

Contemporary commentators often assume that women always had priority for the custody of children. In fact, this is a relatively new development, because in law men had ultimate authority over their children's lives until 1973. Until 1839, women could under no conditions apply for custody of their children; this was granted to men alone. Under the 1886 Guardianship of Infants Act, the welfare of the child was prioritised, which increased the likelihood of a mother winning custody. The Guardianship of Infants Act, 1925, was a crucial moment in a gradual shift towards equality, intending to provide custody rights to both men and women on equal terms when married couples separated. Until then, women had only been able to apply for custody of children under seven years of age. Mothers were not granted fully equal child custody rights with fathers until the Guardianship Act of 1973, which gave women independent authority over their children. Today, however, it is men who frequently have to fight for custody rights, as both the legal framework and cultural mores assume that women have a greater natural ability to parent. Fathers' rights campaigners have criticised the final report (November 2011) of the Family Justice Review, which was appointed to review the whole family justice system in England and Wales. Many argued that the report should have recommended that the rights of both parents should be enshrined in law, as many fathers have little power to insist on contact with their child if the mother does not support this.

 

A change in the law is called for by many organisations, such as Families Need Fathers and Fathers For Justice, who campaign for an assumption of shared parenting in custody cases. Whilst this may not be appropriate in all circumstances, such a change would emphasise the benefit of engaged relationships with both parents. Indeed, research conducted by the Fatherhood Institute and by sociologists Eirini Flouri and Ann Buchanan has found that secure and close relationships with more than one adult figure in a child's life is beneficial. Policies to support the presumption of shared parenting in the event of separation are reportedly being developed by the current government, and are said to be supported by Work and Pensions Secretary Iain Duncan Smith and Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg. However, as such a move would contradict the recommendations of the Family Justice Review, it is yet to be seen as to whether this will result in legislation.

 

Two key ideas are inherent in this debate and have a long history. Firstly, it is consistently argued that both parents should have equal rights to custody of their child. This is accepted by most involved, but opinions differ about how best to ensure this. Secondly, whilst the law places an absolute priority on the child's rights and wellbeing, and most involved in the system agree with this, the balance between the child's and parents' rights continues to provoke controversy. These two key aspects of the current debate have been present for decades; both, for example, were at the forefront of discussions about the Guardianship Act of 1925, in parliament and in the press.

 

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The importance of cultural attitudes alongside policy

A crucial point here is that both government policies and social and cultural attitudes have lasting effects on individual lives, both positive and negative. The key aims of legislators have not changed dramatically in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The paramount importance of the child's welfare and the equal rights of parents have usually been at the forefront of debate. Examining the historical record can reveal a lot about the interaction between legislation and cultural norms. Mothers were for decades in an inferior position, even when the law was designed to secure equality, because of long-held attitudes about the inherent authority of the father. Now, the balance has shifted, but due to society's belief in the superior innate parental instincts and abilities of mothers, they are more likely to be given primary custody rights, particularly as they are more likely to be the resident parent at the time of a legal hearing.

 

Only around one in ten 'single parents' - i.e. those caring solely or primarily for their children - are men. Statistics on the outcomes of court cases relating to child custody are often misused, contradictory and confusing, but it seems clear that mothers are more likely to be seen as primary carers for children, often, but not always in accordance with the wishes of both parents. Indeed, research by the Family Rights Group in 2010 found that fathers are often overlooked by social workers. It is important to note that the vast majority of divorces and separations result in informal and usually amicable agreements regarding the custody of children - around 90 per cent of cases never go to court. Again, ensuring choice for parents is crucial, and cultural attitudes are very important in influencing this, to ensure that support is equally available to mothers and fathers. An insistence on the equality of parents from a social and cultural point of view is needed alongside policy and legislation.

 

Similarly, these same attitudes about the relative abilities of fathers and mothers, have an important impact on paternity leave. If employers and male workers believe fathers are inferior and less significant as parents, paternity leave will remain under-used and even stigmatised. Though most fathers take time off after their children are born, many continue to use annual leave rather than official paternity or parental leave schemes. The continuing impact of traditional gender stereotyping can be seen in the resistance to move towards fully shared parental leave by employers' groups, who cite the costs involved. However, if every couple has one year's shared leave available on the same financial basis as maternity leave, only minimal further costs would be incurred, as research by the Tavistock Institute revealed in 2011. The reluctance to welcome this change reflects wider social attitudes about the relative importance of fatherhood in comparison to motherhood. Other EU states have made further progress in this area; the EU Work-Care Synergies project has found that the increased numbers of men taking extended periods of time off work in countries such as Sweden and Denmark are due to better financial compensation and 'use it or lose it' schemes.

 

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Conclusion

If policy-makers and others want to support more active fatherhood in Britain, to support the greater well-being and happiness of children, and positive male role models who fully embrace domestic responsibility, history can provide a useful tool. Three key points need to be conveyed to policy-makers:

 

Firstly, through an awareness of the varied and active roles fathers have played in the past, we can better judge, and support, the involvement of fathers in family life today. By recognising the long history of active fatherhood, it is clear that men have not suddenly started engaging with their children in meaningful ways.

 

Secondly, policies should be designed to ensure parental choice. Throughout the twentieth century, fathers have used a variety of means to spend time with their babies and support their partners, and facilitating this through flexible policies should be a key aim for the future. Furthermore, supporting a wide range of family forms and both parents (whether they are adoptive parents, homosexual, biological or otherwise) is crucial. Policies relating to family separation and child custody should be designed with such flexibility in mind. An assumption of shared parenting in custody cases may be one solution, and more transparency in terms of the family courts would also be beneficial.

 

Thirdly, both social and cultural norms and policy have made and continue to make a difference. Whilst equality between parents has been a central aim for policy-makers for decades, beliefs about mothers and fathers, and powerful gender stereotypes in society, continue to influence those who make and carry out legislation. Encouraging more flexible and open ideas about social roles would help ensure the wellbeing and happiness of families, children and individuals.

 

June 2012

 

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Related papers

No turning back: family forms and sexual mores in modern Britain Hera Cook, November 2003

 

Is it futile to try to get non-resident fathers to maintain their children? Tanya Evans, October 2006

 

The Child Support Agency and the Old Poor Law Thomas Nutt, October 2006

 

Feeding babies in the 21st Century: Breast is still best, but for new reasons Lawrence Weaver, July 2009

 

'Happy Families?' history and policy Pat Thane, October 2010

 

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Further Reading

John and Elizabeth Newson, Patterns of Infant Care in an Urban Community (Harmondsworth, 1963)

Colin Bell, Lorna McKee and Karen Priestley, Fathers, Childbirth and Work: A Report of a Study (Equal Opportunities Commission, 1983)

Charlie Lewis, Becoming a Father (Milton Keynes, 1986)

Adrienne Burgess, Fatherhood Reclaimed: The Making of the Modern Father (London, 1987)

Leonore Davidoff, Megan Doolittle, Janet Fink and Katherine Holden, The Family Story: Blood, Contract and Intimacy 1830-1939 (London, 1999)

John Tosh, A Man's Place: Masculinity and the Middle-Class Home in Victorian England (New Haven, Connecticut, and London, 1999)

Brid Featherstone, Claire Fraser, Bridget Lindley, and Cathy Ashley, 'Fathers Matter: Resources for Social Work Educators' (2010)

Adrienne Burgess/The Fatherhood Institute, ''Family Man': British Fathers' Journey to the Centre of the Kitchen' (London, 2011)

Family Justice Review Final Report (London, November 2011)

Joanne Bailey, Parenting in England c.1760-1830: emotions, self-identities and generations (Oxford, 2012)

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About the author

Laura King completed an AHRC-funded PhD on fatherhood between the First World War and the 1950s at the University of Sheffield in 2011, and is now working at the Centre for the History of Medicine at the University of Warwick. Her Wellcome Trust-funded project, 'Hiding in the Pub to Cutting the Cord? Fatherhood and Childbirth in Britain, from the 1950s to the present', involved a number of public engagement projects as well as research. You can find more information on the project website, or follow @DrLauraKing on Twitter. Laura King is now continuing her work on fatherhood and public engagement at the University of Leeds. [email protected]

 

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